Religious Art in Medieval England: A Portrayal of Divine Kingship

By Elizabeth Weinberg

British art in the Middle Ages was dominated by the Christian church and nobility. Christianity had increasingly gained more influence, religious art made its way into everyday life, appearing both inside and outside of churches. The Hundred Years War and the War of the Roses meant that the monarchy was in a state of constant change, with kings and princes requiring increasing political support to remain or attain power. Through art, the British kings and nobility illustrated their chivalry, piety, and status in order to portray their divine kingship or role in court. This can be seen through Wilton Diptych, Canterbury Cathedral’s stained glass, and the Bedford Hours.

The Wilton Diptych is a small wooden altarpiece made c. 1395-9 by an unknown English or French artist (National Gallery, 2022). The size of the diptych and book-like quality which allows for it to be closed, implies that this was created as a sort of portable alter for private worship. The diptych depicts King Richard II of England with his Patron Saint John the Baptist along with Saints Edward and Saint Edmund, being presented to the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child. The saints were easily recognisable to those who were familiar with Christian scripture, implying that the commissioner of the painting was versed in biblical imagery. This was likely due to the popularisation of the Legenda Aurea, or ‘The Golden Legend’, which was written by a Dominican friar, Jacopo de Voragine, in 1292 (National Gallery, 2022). The text draws from numerous sources to describe the lives of Christ, Mary and other saints.
On the inside left panel from left to right are Saint Edmund, and Saint Edward the Confessor, and John the Baptist. These specific saints speak to the ‘idea of sacred kingship’ over England and Richard’s devote piety (National Gallery). King Edmund of England was martyred when he was shot with arrows by Vikings for refusing to denounce his faith in order to keep his kingship, therefore becoming the saint of devout kings. King Edward the Confessor gave his ring to a poor beggar, which was later returned to him by St John the Evangelist, becoming known for his generosity and divine recognition. Edwards coat of arms can also be found on the outer left panel, blended with Richard’s coat of arms to imply that the figures mirror each other. John the Baptist is identified by his camel tunic and carrying the Lamb of God. He is one of the most common saints found in medieval art, as the cousin of Christ and devout Christian prophet. Richard was especially fond of John the Baptist, hence his physical closeness to him in the painting, and owned relics which he claimed belonged to John. Depicting these saints alongside King Richard II implies a parallel between himself and their saintly attributes as divine rulers and leaders.
On the inside right panel are the Virgin Mary and Christ surrounded by angels. One of the angels is holding the flag of St George, a symbolic gesture conveying Christ’s support of England. This is also exhibited by the angels wearing the white hart, the personal badge of Richard II which he administered to his followers (Wormald, 1954: 198). The white hart is also portrayed on the right outside of the diptych, opposite of the Christ and Mary, lying on a field of flowers similar to the one which Mary and the angels stand on as if the hart is within their world. Richard also wears a white hart with pearls along its antlers and a golden crown, similar to his own crown bedazzled in pearls. The crowns of Edmund and Edward also decorated with pearls similarly to Richard’s, again elevating Richard’s status that of a saint.
By surrounding King Richard II by holy figures, incorporating his personal symbol’s to illustrate his divine favour, Richard’s kingship is solidified. While he was eventually forced to abdicate and imprisoned by his cousin and successor, Henry IV, there is no doubt that this painting was intended to support Richard’s divine rule.

New methods in engineering found that vaulted ceilings allowed for taller buildings with
larger windows (Honour & Fleming, 417). This gothic architecture brought in more natural light to churches and cathedrals. Previously, religious art in churches predominantly was found either behind the altar or on the west wall of the church above the entrance so that visitors leaving the church would see it as they left. Colourful stained glass windows were yet another storytelling device which would glorify the Christian church and inspire devotion. While stained glass was initially decorated solely with biblical scenes, ‘historical subjects’ and ‘traditions of royalty’ soon emerged, as the expensive art form require large donations from the royals and aristocracy (Sears, 1911: 396).
Edward IV (1442-1483) belonged to the House of York and inherited his father’s claim to the throne, however the Wars of the Roses between the Lancastrians and Yorkists had caused him to flee to Flanders following an unsuccessful battle (Myers, 2022). With Flemish support and growing support in London, Edward returned to England and regained his throne. At Canterbury Cathedral, one of England’s oldest cathedrals and a place of pilgrimage after the canonisation of Thomas Becket, a stained glass window was dedicated to the returned royal family, as the town of Canterbury supported the Yorkist claim to the throne.
On what’s known as the ‘Royal Window’ on the north-west transept of the cathedral, are the portraits of King Edward IV and his wife, Queen Elizabeth Woodville (Seliger, 2022). Behind the Queen on the right are their daughters, including Elizabeth of York who became the Queen consort of England after her marriage to Henry VII, and was mother to Henry VIII. Behind Elizabeth are their other daughters, Cecily, Anne, Catherine, and Mary of York. Behind the king on the left is the future king of England, Edward V and Richard, Duke of York. The age of the princes as depicted implies that this piece was created not long before the kings sudden death, which was quickly followed by the arrests and murders of his two sons in the Tower of London later that year. This image is one few depicting the ‘Princes in the Tower’ prior to their death.
In the center, the King and Queen are kneeling on a prie-dieu, a type of prayer bench for devotional use. Both figures are reading the Bible, while King Edward holds his sceptre. The sceptre is presented to the king b the church upon coronation, ‘representing the sovereign's temporal power’ (Royal Collection Trust, 2022). Between them are their joint coat of arms which incorporates the gules shield of 3 lions of England and the French azure fleur-de-lis. This unification of British and French symbols under one crown highlights the continual British assertion to the right of the French throne. On the left of the coat of arms, on the side of Edward, is a rearing red dragon. The red dragon symbolises bravery and ferocity, and as a mythical beast also alludes to the mythology of Celtic Britain. On the right, on the side of Elizabeth, is a rearing white dog which is part of her own family’s coat of arms. The dog is often associated with women, as seen by their feet on tomb structures, as the dog symbolises loyalty and reliability (English Heritage). In the same way that the Wilton Diptych uses biblical figures and the personal symbols of King Richard II to imply his sacred kingship, Canterbury Cathedral’s stained glass windows promote the divinity of the royal family.
Various Artists, Bedford Hours, c.1410 onward, British Library, London.

‘The development of lay piety’ in the Middle Ages, which eventually led to a reorganisation of the church during the Reformation, has ‘been attributed to a confluence of unsettling political, religious, (and) demographic’ factors (Bell, 1982: 742). The continuation of war and natural disasters such as the plague, ushered in a heightened religiosity. The book of hours was a ‘functional prayer books made for the nonordained, and the paintings in them were intended to foster reflection and devotion’ (Stein, 2017). The book is comprised of a series of prayers, traditionally divided into eight sections, outlining which prayers are meant to be said at which time of day based on the ecclesiastical practices. Many books often included psalms, gospel lessons, and additional prayers. These books were personalised and the nobility often commissioned extravagantly painted manuscripts filled with gold leafed lettering and paintings.
The Bedford Hours is an illuminated manuscript which was produced over a period of time, likely beginning in c. 1410-1415 for a member of the French royal family (British Library). However, ‘the most significant additions were included between 1423 and 1430 when the manuscript was in the possession of John, Duke of Bedford’(1389-1435), hence the book’s titling. In addition to biblical scenes and hours to saints, the Duke commissioned the ‘Legend of the Fleurs- de-lis’ and illustrations of himself and his wife, Anne of Burgundy. The marriage was one of the terms of the Treaty of Amiens which was a temporary agreement between Burgundy, Brittany and England during the Hundred Years War (British Library, 2022).
One of the images depicts the Duke praying before Saint George, whom we can identify by his armour, his red cross, and the blue mantle on cape. The mantle is the symbol of the Order of the Garter, the English order of chivalry dedicated to St George (British Library). Like Saint George, and as the third son of King Henry IV, John is a Knight of the Garter. Similarly, an image of his wife Anne of Burgundy is depicted praying before Saint Anne. Not only is there a parallel between the lady’s names, but Saint Anne is the patron saint of the Duchess’s home country of France. These individual portraits depict not just their country of birth, but their roles in marriage and life; the Duke as the chivalric knight, and the Duchess as the mother and housewife. This romanticised notions are additionally echoed by the French text on the fabrics behind them. Behind John reads, “à vous entier” meaning “all yours”, while behind Anne reads, “j’en suis contente y” meaning “I am content”.
Below each of their portraits are their respective coats of arms to display their noble heritage (Backhouse, 1981: 48). Their noble status was equally as important to portray as their divinity, especially as relations of the King of England. In fact, a Latin inscription ‘records that Anne gave it, with her husband’s consent, to their young nephew King Henry VI of England’ in 1430 (Backhouse, 1981: 47). It would not be coincidental that the King would see the Duke and Duchess in a favourable light while reading their Book of Hours, remembering their generosity, piety, and allegiance to England.

After analysing the imagery used in the Wilton Diptych, Canterbury Cathedral’s stained glass, and the Bedford Hours, it’s evident that Medieval Christian art in Britain was used as a tool by the nobility to reflect their divinity and, therefore, gain support from their subjects.




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